Importance Of Sociology As A Field Of Study Essay

Sociology as a field of study attempts to explain the relationship between an individual and society. Sociological theories are a tool used to explain sociological problems and social structures. (Blumer, 1969) Societies can be viewed as organic structures. This was first explained by Parsons and Durkheim as they developed structural theories. These theories can be applied in education i. e. how students view education. Societies can also be viewed as economic structures. Under this concept, falls the conflict theory developed by Carl Marx. Marx looked at a number of theories that attempt to explain how people’s lives are shaped by social structures. Other theories that share a similar perspective are the functionalist theories. Societies can also be looked as social action. This implies that society shapes how people view themselves. In line with this perspective, sociologists came up with the idea of symbolic interactionism. There are also other ideas that go hand in hand with this idea i. e. GH mead. Lastly, one must apply all the sociological theories stated above and many others that have not been mentioned. For example one can consider Medicalisation of society’s problems. This can be explained by a number of sociological theories like: Marx’s theories, interactionist theories and Durkheiman’ theories. Importance of sociology as a field of study Conflict theory Sociology assists in explaining social change. It helps us to understand what the role of the individual is in changing society. This is best explained by the Conflict theory. This theory does not have only one name connoted to it although the founder of the theory was Karl Marx. There are various regions in the world where sociologists elaborated on this theory. Some of these sociologists are; †¢ Ralf Dahrendorf – Germany †¢ Ludwig Gumpolvicz – Germany †¢ Lewis Coser and Collins – USA †¢ Max Gluchman and Rex – UK (Garfinkel, 1967) The conflict theory’s main idea is that there exists a constant struggle in society and every entity in society is trying to make the most of their reimbursement consequently bringing about social change. This change can come in form of revolutions or it may be political. It focuses on coercion by groups and individuals to alter or control others’ actions. The theory helps us to understand why ideologies like socialism and capitalism. There is a constant struggle within society for paybacks. This theory can be viewed from two angles. The first angle is a radical one; society will forever in conflict while the second angle is that conflict combines with struggle to make up society. This moderate angle is best explained by the functionalism. The latter mentioned theory postulates that every member of society has a specific role to play. Conflict theory can best be perceived as a pyramid. Influential people are at the top and they impose their will upon less powerful people who happen to be the majority. This implies that people in power are taken to be superior and they are the ones responsible for modern day laws, institutions and traditions. This theory can be stretched to explain how morality or deviance is defined. The powerful individuals in society label deeds or actions as immoral if those actions challenge their influence and power. Conflict theory also attempts to explain stratification in society but from an individualistic point of view. It looks at individuals needs instead of society’s needs as a whole. Every individual tries to struggle for respect, goods and services as well as power; these e all very scarce. In this light therefore, individuals belong to organisations that represent their own interests. The theory views organisations as entities that are mostly influenced by external rather than internal factors. (Goffman, 1958) In the theory, there are a number of conflicts that fall under. These include; †¢ Class †¢ Race and ethnicity †¢ Gender †¢ Religion Marx believed that class conflict was caused by differential ownership of property. However, this theory was later challenged by other sociologists who believed that there is more to class than property ownership. These sociologists believe that this is only one aspect. Racial conflict has its root cause in differential power. According to the theory, superior races are those one who are well endowed with power, prestige and education. There are four basic assumptions in this theory. The first is that there is inequality in society’s structures, secondly there is revolution as a result of struggle between a numbers of social classes, thirdly there is competition for resources and lastly war exists to unify or divide society. Conflict can take the form of a strike where workers struggle to gain back control after it has been taken from them by their employers. Another form of a conflict could be through wars. Wars usually represent clashes between social classes. Taking the case of military coups, this is an example of a conflict between the main population and the military. (Durkheim, 1915) Ethnomethodology Ethnomethodology is the study of how people interpret their social world. This theory has its history back in the mid twentieth century and was founded by Garfinkel who was an American sociologist. The theory is quite different form other well known theories. This theory is founded on the fact that there is no order in society; society is chaotic or has the potential to be chaotic. According to the theory, any semblance of order is created by the minds of actors within society it simply does not exist. This is in sharp contrast to other well known theories. Social order may be defined as the systematic pattern of behaviour within society. It opposes the fact that actions are not thought out and are simply haphazard. Ethnomethodologists believe that individuals encounter several experiences in their lives. These individuals try to make sense of these encounters by placing them into a form of organised system. They believe in a documentary method. Here, individuals simply pick out certain events within a social situation and try to make sense of them. After they have organised those events into a pattern, then they use that pattern as a template to explain other situations that may arise. Garnfinkel used an experiment to demonstrate this theory. He got a number of students and instructed them to ask a supervisor about a number of issues on their mind. The students could not see the advisor but could talk to him. They asked him a number of questions and this advisor could only say yes or no. What the students did not know was the advisor was reading out a list of responses that did not match their questions in any way. It was found that most of the responses did not make logical sense but most of the students tried to interpret them nonetheless. They did not question the integrity of the advisor but they tried to compare past responses with present ones in order to come up with an orderly pattern. For example one of the students thought that he should quit school and asked the advisor this. The advisor told him ‘no’ and out of disbelief the student repeated this same question after which the advisor said ‘yes’. It was found that this particular student did not dismiss the advisor but tried to make sense of the situation. According to the theory, the students were trying to form sense out of senselessness. They were trying to turn chaos into order. Garfinkel introduces the idea of indexicality. This means that human beings have a tendency to index things that occur to them i. e. they always try to put things within a certain social context. They must relate it to other things that have occurred to them before or during a particular scene. For example, the interaction that took place between the students and the advisor followed a certain path because the students held the advisor in high esteem. This implies that if the student could see what was happening with the advisor behind the screen that had covered him, or if their classmates asked answered their questions, then their reactions would have been totally different. This is because the students would simply have formed another documentary. People who adhere to this theory believe that all human beings have preconceived notions about their daily lives. This means that if a sudden change was brought into someone’s life their reactions are quite different. This is justified by the fact that it would be very chaotic if we looked at things differently at all times. We must become familiar with some aspects of our lives so as to be able to Symbolic interactionism This theory has its history in the late nineteenth century. It was pioneered by a sociologist from Germany called Marx Weber. The theory is best known for its subjectivity rather than its objectivity. Interactionists focus on individuals rather than on society as a whole. They perceive human beings as creatures whose behaviours are reactive or subject to the approval of others. This is because all actions, according to them, are like symbolic actions which are interpreted differently according to one’s perspective. This theory also looks at human beings as symbolic objects who can think and react to situations. This means that individuals within a society are active participants of their society. They determine what happens to them. Sociologists adhering to this theory believe that we are not passive entities who must mould themselves to society’s rules and standards. This theory focuses on external issues and simple interactions. It cannot be used to interpret deeper social settings like capitalism. It is also quite crucial to note that this theory perceives society’s norms as transient and constantly changing. Stability and order in society is determined by negotiations. The systems themselves are not stable but the means by which these systems in society are created is stable. (Merton, 1968) The theory therefore points one on the direction of roles played by people in society. The theory places importance in role making and role taking. This means that individuals must put themselves in a certain perspective in order to understand another person’s point of view. Studies on interactionism are therefore done through active role taking. This is because they believe that one must interact thoroughly with another party in order to understand the reason why they made their decision. However critics have claimed that the theory is too narrow and cannot be applied to macro situations. It has also been criticised for its impressionism during research methods. (George, 1964) Functionalism The theory was pioneered by a French sociologist called Emile Durkheim back in the mid to late nineteenth century. This theory compares the individual with his/her society and also scientific method of analysing society. This implies that one can be able to study the social world using observation and analysis. It also assumes that studies of society can be done freely and without any bias. Another crucial aspect of the theory is the organic aspect of society. It compares society to an organism. That there are various parts of the body that each has their own function. This is analogous to society and its members. It is also important to note the homeostatic nature of interactions. This theory looks at society as a system that must remain in equilibrium. Any deviation from this is corrected by a number of mechanisms like gossip or even imprisonment depending on the scenario. Conclusion Interactionists believe that social order is continuously remade as people interact. Social order is not static and changes with time. Functionalists believe that order within society exists as a result of an agreement between members of society. That is collective behavioural patterns that are regarded as the norm in society. Again, the theory strongly affirms that social order does exist. Marxists believe that social order is created from a struggle to gain control of limited resources while ethnomethodologists mould situations to fit into a certain behavioural pattern. All these theories attempt to explain why human beings behave the way the do either as individuals or as a group on a macro scale. This is the essence of sociology.

Houstons Land Use Policy Essay

Houston is a large city with very unique qualities that most cities cannot even begin to understand, but is this just Houstonian pride talking? No, actually one of the unique qualities that Houston has is how we handle our land use planning. Houston is well known for not having any zoning ordinances, which has become a well-known topic for a while now. People argue weather our lack of zoning is chaotic, unorthodox, or independent and distinct. Another unique quality that we have is where our political culture stands. Dr. Elazar’s â€Å"Individualistic – Traditionalistic† study of political culture talks about three categories moralistic, individualistic, and traditionalistic, which entails what category Texas falls in and why. This study of Political culture can help relate to reasons why Houston lacks at land use planning and whether it is for the best or worse. The land use planning in Houston is different from other cities because we don’t have zoning o rdinance, meaning that we can have for example â€Å"the fanciest restaurant in town right next to a tattoo parlor†¦Ã¢â‚¬  ,UH of Architecture Dean Patricia Oliver. Other cities have a different system that involves color-coded maps that let people know where and what they can and can’t have in those properties. Cities that have regulations do it because they believe that if the government doesn’t tell them what to do with the land it would be chaotic. Houston, on the other hand thinks that property owners decide what works best for their property not the government. Even though everything seems unrestricted in Houston we do have a form of organizing certain areas like neighborhoods with â€Å"deed restrictions† where owners voluntarily agree to certain restrictions when they buy property. We also have â€Å"property rights† which means that one the government cannot tell you what to do with your land. Due to the system that Houston uses to administer the land use, most housing becomes affordable an example is also the way Houston evaded the real estate bubble. The broader picture to Houston is that it comes from the biggest state in the U.S, Texas. Texas has a vast amount of people and within these people there  are different types of mindsets but there are also similar ones things like this are what describe are Political culture which the book, Texas Politics 12th edition, defines it as a shared system of values, beliefs and habits of behavior with regard about politics. Dr. Elazar describes political culture as everyone being impacted by the beliefs and values of the dominant groups in society; these groups can range in between three categories of political culture moralistic, Individualistic, and traditionalistic. According to the book, moralistic political culture is when citizens understand the state and the nation as commonwealths designed to further the shared interest of everyone. In Individualistic political culture, citizens understand the state and the nation as marketplaces in which people strive to better their personal welfare, citizen participation is encouraged. In Traditionalistic political culture, citizens technically believe in democracy, but emphasize respect to elite rule within a hierarchal society and citizen participation is not encouraged. Texas stands right in between Individualistic and Traditionalistic in the scale of political culture. Texas is a midpoint between individualistic and traditionalistic; some people think that there is a correlation between the zoning and the political culture in Houston, Texas. Research has shown that the state has a very strong business oriented perspective which means they’re more open to the ideas of the public, Individualistic. This explains how in Houston we don’t have the government tell us where we can do with our property we can put any business where we please. The traditionalistic culture in Texas comes from the way the elite groups are the ones that rule, this idea is active through the projection of restriction with â€Å"deed restrictions† and â€Å"Property rights† where the majority choose what they want or only approve of government activity if they favor to their likings. The land use planning in Houston is unique compared to other cities in the U.S. We have no zoning restrictions meaning we chose where we want are properties and what we do with them. The only exception is when the majority of people make a decision on what can happen on a certain area like a neighborhood. The political culture of Texas, which is in between individualistic and traditionalistic and it is portrayed in the land use planning in Houston. Citations Newell, Charldean, David F. Prindle, and James W. Riddlesperger. â€Å"Texas Political Culture.†Texas Politics. N.p.: n.p., n.d. N. pag. Print. Teas, Anderew. â€Å"HCC Eagle Online: Login to the Site.† HCC Eagle Online: Login to the Site. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Jan. 2014.

Sustainability issues of using [material X] Essay

Sustainability issues of using [material X] - Essay Example Although some of these resources such as trees, wildlife, and soil fertility can possibly be restore through improved conservation measures, some of the resources that are provided by nature are irreversible and they consumption reduces their availability (Lee, & Ofori-boateng, 2013). For instance, oil and fossil resources are non-renewable natural resources that get depleted with time. Even the recycling of other minerals and resources in the surrounding is likely to suffer from lack of adequate energy for the recycling process. For this reason, it is important to note that the sustainability of other resource and natural endowment heavily depend on the sustainability and the existence of energy that is extracted from the fossil deposits. Although the energy conservation organizations are encouraging a shift in the energy sector with renewable energy sources being preferred as the replacement of the traditional non-renewable energy sources such as oil and petroleum products, this pr oposed shifting would only be possible with sustainability of fossil deposits (Sullivan, 2009). The overreliance on fossil and particularly oil product as the primary source of energy and fuel has adversely affected the capacity of these resources and thus raising questions about their ability to sustain the faster growing global population over the next decade. Despite the economic value and contribution to the economic growth and development in general, oil and petroleum resources are likely to be fully exhausted with the ores running dry. It is therefore important for cheaper and sustainable alternative be explored to relieve oil and petroleum resources from this over-exploitation. The sustainability of the fast growing human population is determined the adequate food production, a factor that also need energy resources to be realized. Unlike in the last century when there was production boom in the agricultural sector given that the dumped vast petroleum resources to support agr icultural productivity (such as petroleum driven pesticides and chemicals), today, there is global hunger and starvation (Lee, & Ofori-boateng, 2013). The produces from these farms are then channeled and transported to other destinations for feed the hungry through the use of fossil fuel powered engines such as trains, ships, trucks, and planes. This implies that there is relationship between the sustainability of the oil production and food products that are the primary the source of sustainability for the human general in the coming days. The excessive use of these resource have posed more problem to the world; including global warming that further threaten the exploitation of oil and petroleum products (Vincenzo & Nicola, 2010). Therefore, the sustainability of the oil products depends on how effective these resources are exploited and run. Given the importance of these oil and petroleum products to the economy, emphasis should be given to these non-renewable products. Issues of Relying on Oil Products Although oil and petroleum products account for over 80% of the global energy sources, the future of these energy products raises a lot of questions (Sullivan, 2009). The use of these products is associated with a number of environmental sustainability issues such as pollution. Pollution is the major concern on the consumption of these valuable products that have a number

Genetic Analytical Report. exmamine the postive & negative effects of Essay

Genetic Analytical Report. exmamine the postive & negative effects of providing patrents with information - Essay Example Awareness of the genetic predisposition to diseases will trigger the notion of taking pro-active measures to ensure health safety in the public. Cooperation and encouragement of the government of Australia are some of the most fundamental requirements of this notion. This research report will generate useful information for a common man as well as for the government of Australia to some extent who will be able to use this information to make informed decisions while making the policies regarding the promotion or restriction of disclosing the genetic predisposition to diseases to people. Researchers hold the consensus that human genetic predisposition is the cause of most chronic diseases. In a vast majority of cases, it takes more than a single defective gene to cause the disease. Nevertheless, this remains a fact that genetic component is the most fundamental causal factor in a lot of common diseases experienced in adulthood including schizophrenia, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and several congenital malformations that include but are not limited to neural tube defects, cleft lip, and cleft palate. This has conventionally generated a consensus among the doctors that many individual genes play a little yet considerable role in predisposing a person to a particular condition of genetics. Despite that, identifying the genes causing a particular disease is a very cumbersome target to achieve. In order to determine and sequence such a gene, it is imperative that the scientists are able to tell a gene that is equipped with the predisposing power for a specific disorder from the others. This raises a question for the scientists whether going through such a tough process is worth it when the information has mixed effects on the life of the individual whose genes are being assessed. Telling an individual that he/she carries a certain gene that caused an awful disease in his/her parents can be very overwhelming and stressful for the individual. On the other hand, kn owledge of the existence of a dangerous gene and the likelihood of acquiring the disease in the future gets very alarming for the individual and he/she is able to take preventive measures in time. Thus, informing the individuals about their genetic predisposition to diseases has both positive and negative outcomes. This research paper is directed at identifying the potential pros and cons of letting the people know their genetic predisposition to diseases. 1.1   Background and recent findings   In order to perceive the way of portrayal of genetics and the scientists’ role in it, popular media has been studied a number of times by different researchers (Condit, Ofulue, & Sheedy 1998; Henderson and Kitzinger 1999, Conrad 2001, Petersen 2001, and Bubela & Caulfield 2004). Other researchers have conducted in-depth analysis of the published editorials and journal articles with a view to examining the way developments in genetics have conventionally been recorded by the clinici ans and past researchers and what role they have played in advancing the field of genetics (Cunningham-Burley & Amos 1999). Editorials are one of the most fundamental sources of information about the portrayal of genetics. â€Å"Published in peer-reviewed journals, editorials allow leaders of the research and clinical communities to provide commentary on developments in science and clinical practice†

Apply the universal intellectual standards and the elements of thought Essay

Apply the universal intellectual standards and the elements of thought compare and contrast your home culture (iraqi) with US Army culture - Essay Example te management planning in Babylon and training Iraq professionals in object talks, statues and sites to pursue special line of study in Erbil institute. The High respect of Iraq is depicted through the America’s projects who are the heirs to a culture and artistic legacy revere throughout the world. The culture of army profession in U. S is about morals and ethical values. The culture is about the basic elements and fundamental foundation of the profession that is known as trust. The U.S. army cultural value includes duty, loyalty, integrity, homage, integrity, selfless service and individual bravery. These values originate from the central beliefs of American culture. These values describe the depth and substance of American character, which are anchored on the common heritage, sacrifice and history. The Army values of all soldiers are characteristically defined through duty action guide who may be on and off. Moreover, the value shapes the army as a profession, implies what is paramount and influences the daily operations of the army. This value in U.S army guides the personnel’s’ behavior and actions as the United States ambassadors when working closely with partner nations and allies. The primary and most comprehensive strategy for the army commanders before planning for war is to make a judgment to establish war on which they are embarking on; they should not mistake it for, or turn it to thoughts that are alien. Iraq assumed to have ties and support from the Al-Qaeda terrorist groups. There was also unjustified thought that they had mass destruction arsenals because of the country’s programs of nuclear weapon, chemical and biological programs. They also had long-range missile development programs too. This convinced many that Iraq had reconstituted significant capabilities. In the president’s speech before the U.N, in September 12, the year 2002, Bush requested Iraq to disclose, swear and remove all the related weapons of mass destruction and

Victim Blaming and Victim Defending Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Victim Blaming and Victim Defending - Essay Example In most cases, people who are exceptionally familiar with victimology do not view the victim as the one responsible for the misdemeanor. However, knowledge about the prior rapport between the fatality and perpetrator maximizes the perceptions of victim blame for cases such as wife battery. In addition, most of the psychologists argue that the victim is not necessarily fallacious. Roy Baumeister; a personality and social psychologist, argues that showing the victim’s responsibility can be shrewd, contrary to typical clarification of meanness and aggression (Said & Hitchens, 2001). Furthermore, in these two concepts there are factors such as secondary victimization, just-world hypothesis, rape shield laws, sexual purity and family honor which are of crucial importance (Ryan, 1976). These terminologies are quite common in association to victim blaming and victim defending. In relation to this case, secondary victimization can be identified as the retraumatization of the abuse victim through the response of the community in general. For example in the case of battered women, the women might be blamed. For instance, they might be accused of not acting as to the stipulated guidelines set by the husband or even cheating on the husband. These are some of the most common acts that may trigger the husband to beat his wife. Hence, this phenomenon is identified as secondary victimization. Rape shield laws have also become common according to most jurisdictions. These laws are liable for protecting the alleged victim with respect to certain phenomena. Another common factor related to the issue of victim blaming and defending is sexual purity and family honor. This prevalent factor involves social relationships in which women are mostly blamed for their indiscriminate acts. Lastly, there is the just-world hypothesis issue which is also prevalent in issues related to victim blaming and defending. This aspect describes the phenomenon that people believe

T. J. Maxx breach Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

T. J. Maxx breach - Research Paper Example Due to the TJX breach not only TJX had to suffer but also different banks had to pay the penalty by reissuing the cards to their customers. Gifford (2009, p 65) states that the protocol in WEP was insecure as it was not encrypted properly. TJX Co. did not apply the obfuscation and encryption policies to protect the consumer data. The security software purchased by TJX was not implemented correctly by the IT department of TJX Co. weak firewall rules are also a major characteristic of the cyber security incident. TJX had to pay around $80 -$100 million as a cost of settlement. Hence, it is important to secure data instead to pay penalties (Matwyshyn, 2009, p.9). According to Matwyshyn (2009, p.10), risk management is an important factor which should be implemented in order to prevent recurrence. This made the attack more vulnerable in nature as it did not have to undergo any type of hindrance. A chief information security officer should be allocated who has information of where the customer data is stored and moreover which of the third parties have access to it. Matwyshyn (2009, p.11) suggests that the external reports of the breach should be given importance. for example if a customer gets access to other customer’s data on a website and reports to the company then it should be checked instead of ignoring the issue. There should be regular monitoring of the customer data and its screening should also be done on regular basis. This helps keeping an eye on the usage of data and to remain up to date. The access to data by the employees should also be limited. According to Ballad, Ballad and Banks (2010, p.110) privileges and access to databases should be given only to the people related to information security of the organization. There should be an eye kept on the employees who want to access data, harm it or use it for some other purposes